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ELECTIONS
What Is Democracy?
The Benchmark of Elections
Elections are the central institution of democratic representative governments. Why? Because, in a democracy, the authority of the government derives solely from the consent of the governed. The principal mechanism for translating that consent into governmental authority is the holding of free and fair elections.
All modern democracies hold elections, but not all elections are democratic. Right-wing dictatorships, Marxist regimes, and single-party governments also stage elections to give their rule the aura of legitimacy. In such elections, there may be only one candidate or a list of candidates, with no alternative choices. Such elections may offer several candidates for each office, but ensure through intimidation or rigging that only the government-approved candidate is chosen. Other elections may offer genuine choices--but only within the incumbent party. These are not democratic elections.
What Are Democratic Elections?
Jeane Kirkpatrick , scholar and former U.S. ambassador to the United Nations, has offered this definition: "Democratic elections are not merely symbolic....They are competitive, periodic, inclusive, definitive elections in which the chief decision-makers in a government are selected by citizens who enjoy broad freedom to criticize government, to publish their criticism and to present alternatives."
What do Kirkpatrick's criteria mean? Democratic elections are competitive. Opposition parties and candidates must enjoy the freedom of speech, assembly, and movement necessary to voice their criticisms of the government openly and to bring alternative policies and candidates to the voters. Simply permitting the opposition access to the ballot is not enough. Elections in which the opposition is barred from the airwaves, has its rallies harassed or its newspapers censored, are not democratic. The party in power may enjoy the advantages of incumbency, but the rules and conduct of the election contest must be fair.
Democratic elections are periodic. Democracies do not elect dictators or presidents-for-life. Elected officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their mandate to continue in office. This means that officials in a democracy must accept the risk of being voted out of office. The one exception is judges who, to insulate them against popular pressure and help ensure their impartiality, may be appointed for life and removed only for serious improprieties.
Democratic elections are inclusive. The definition of citizen and voter must be large enough to include a large proportion of the adult population. A government chosen by a small, exclusive group is not a democracy--no matter how democratic its internal workings may appear. One of the great dramas of democracy throughout history has been the struggle of excluded groups--whether racial, ethnic, or religious minorities, or women--to win full citizenship, and with it the right to vote and hold office. In the United States, for example, only white male property holders enjoyed the right to elect and be elected when the Constitution was signed in 1787. The property qualification disappeared by the early 19th century, and women won the right to vote in 1920. Black Americans, however, did not enjoy full voting rights in the southern United States until the civil rights movement of the 1960s. And finally, in 1971, younger citizens were given the right to vote when the United States lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.
Democratic elections are definitive. They determine the leadership of the government. Subject to the laws and constitution of the country, popularly elected representatives hold the reins of power. They are not simply figureheads or symbolic leaders.
Finally, democratic elections are not limited to selecting candidates. Voters can also be asked to decide policy issues directly through referendums and initiatives that are placed on the ballot. In the United States, for example, state legislatures can decide to "refer," or place, an issue directly before the voters. In the case of an initiative, citizens themselves can gather a prescribed number of signatures (usually a percentage of the number of registered voters in that state) and require that an issue be placed on the next ballot--even over the objections of the state legislature or governor. In a state such as California, voters confront dozens of legislative initiatives each time they vote--on issues ranging from environmental pollution to automobile insurance costs.
Democratic Ethics and the Loyal Opposition
Democracies thrive on openness and accountability, with one very important exception: the act of voting itself. To cast a free ballot and minimize the opportunity for intimidation, voters in a democracy must be permitted to cast their ballots in secret. At the same time, the protection of the ballot box and tallying of vote totals must be conducted as openly as possible, so that citizens are confident that the results are accurate and that the government does, indeed, rest upon their "consent."
One of the most difficult concepts for some to accept, especially in nations where the transition of power has historically taken place at the point of a gun, is that of the "loyal opposition." This idea is a vital one, however. It means, in essence, that all sides in a democracy share a common commitment to its basic values. Political competitors don't necessarily have to like each other, but they must tolerate one another and acknowledge that each has a legitimate and important role to play. Moreover, the ground rules of the society must encourage tolerance and civility in public debate.
When the election is over, the losers accept the judgment of the voters. If the incumbent party loses, it turns over power peacefully. No matter who wins, both sides agree to cooperate in solving the common problems of the society. The losers, now in the political opposition, know that they will not lose their lives or go to jail. On the contrary, the opposition, whether it consists of one party or many, can continue to participate in public life with the knowledge that its role is essential in any democracy worthy of the name. They are loyal not to the specific policies of the government, but to the fundamental legitimacy of the state and to the democratic process itself.
As the next election comes around, opposition parties will again have the opportunity to compete for power. In addition, a pluralistic society, one in which the reach of government is limited, tends to offer election losers alternatives for public service outside government. Those defeated at the polls may choose to continue as a formal opposition party, but they may also decide to participate in the wider political process and debate through writing, teaching, or joining one of many private organizations concerned with public policy issues. Democratic elections, after all, are not a fight for survival but a competition to serve.
Electoral College Index
What is suffrage? Simply put, suffrage is the right to vote. Today, suffrage is one of the major principles of democracy. Some countries that haven't historically been led by democratic governments are just now allowing their citizens to vote in general elections.
In the United States today, every man and woman who is at least 18 has the right to vote in general government elections. But this wasn't always the case. America's history is filled with changes to the voting laws.
The U.S. Constitution was adopted. In Article II , the founding fathers, or "framers," described the process that the country would undergo to elect its presidents and vice-presidents, including the creation of the Electoral College .
Image: The U.S. Constitution
Source: National Archives and Records Administration
Click here or on the image to see a larger version and more related information.
The first presidential election was held. The Electoral College unanimously elected George Washington .
New states quickly started joining the union, each developing and adopting its own constitution. Most of these states specified that only white, adult men could vote in elections. Other states restricted the right to vote to white men who owned property or who paid taxes. Generally, only a few free northern or southern blacks could vote. Women could not vote anywhere, even if they owned property.
Women, such as Lucretia Mott and Elizabeth Cady Stanton , began to form groups that worked to gain greater rights for women. These groups argued that men and women were created as equals and they supported many reforms that would advance the status of women in society. Among the reforms for which they fought was the right to vote.
Wisconsin became the 30th state in the union. Its constitution adopted the most liberal voting laws in the country. Aliens in Wisconsin could vote if they'd resided in the state for one year and declared their intent to become citizens. Other states agreed with Wisconsin's policy and quickly adopted similar laws.
Also in 1848, the Woman's Rights Convention was held in Seneca Falls, N.Y. The attendees agreed that women should have greater rights, such as the opportunity to go to college, become doctors and lawyers, own land, and vote.
Image: Declaration of Rights and Sentiments from the Woman's Rights Convention
Source: Library of Congress
Click here or on the image to see a larger version.
A group of anti-immigrants formed a new political party, the Know-Nothings . As part of their platform, they supported literacy tests, which required that one prove he could read and write the English language before he could vote. Since few immigrants and blacks (whether free or slaves) were literate, literacy tests were a way to prevent these groups from voting.
When the Civil War ended, blacks began demanding political rights, including the right to vote. Some Radical Republicans, who wanted to punish the confederate leaders and protect the rights of former slaves, supported their efforts.
Congress adopted the 14th Amendment to the Constitution. Section 2 of this amendment attempted to protect all U.S. male residents who were at least 21 years old from voting obstacles. Any state that tried to prevent members of this group from voting would lose a proportionate number of its members of the House of Representatives and electors in the Electoral College.
Also in 1866, Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony founded the American Equal Rights Association. Men and women of all races were invited to join this group, which supported suffrage for everyone, regardless of race, color, or sex.
Image: Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony
Source: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division [LC-USZ61-791 DLC]
Click here or on the image to see a larger version.
Congress adopted the 15th Amendment to the Constitution. This Amendment took the 14th Amendment one step further by formally granting all men the right to vote, regardless of their race, color, or previous servitude. By using the word men, women were specifically excluded from the right to vote.
Also in 1869, the women's suffrage movement split into two separate groups. Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Susan B. Anthony led the National Woman Suffrage Association , which opposed the ratification of the 15th Amendment on the grounds that it didn't grant women the right to vote and supported the notion of a new amendment that would grant universal suffrage. Lucy Stone and Julia Ward Howe formed the American Woman Suffrage Association , which proposed that the fight would be more easily won by getting states to pass individual laws granting suffrage.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton and Sojourner Truth attempted to vote in the presidential election. Stanton was arrested and tried in court. Truth was turned away at the polls.
Image: Sojourner Truth
Source: Library of Congress, Prints and Photographs Division [reproduction number LC-USZ62-119343 DLC]
An act to amend the Constitution to grant women the right to vote was introduced into Congress. It took legislators 42 years to adopt the amendment and obtain ratification by the states.
Some Southern states, still reeling from the Civil War, did not believe that the 15th Amendment was a guarantee of suffrage. Instead, they believed that it prohibited them from denying someone the right to vote strictly because of his race or color. To that end, these states developed creative ways of preventing blacks from voting, such as complicated ballot boxes that illiterates couldn't read, poll taxes they couldn't pay, and literacy tests they couldn't pass.
The National Woman Suffrage Association and the American Woman Suffrage Association banded together to form the National American Woman Suffrage Association , led by Elizabeth Cady Stanton. During the 1890s, in an effort to encourage men to vote freely, many states adopted the secret ballot, which made it impossible for party bosses to intimidate voters by monitoring voting habits. The secret ballot also made it possible for voters to split their tickets, or to select candidates from different parties on the same ballot.
Despite the efforts of early feminists in the 1840s, the women's suffrage movement just now began to pick up steam. Many groups, such as the National Women's Party, the National Federation of Women's Clubs, and Theodore Roosevelt's Progressive/Bull Moose Party , supported the suffragists' cause. The suffragists, led by Anna Howard Shaw , Carrie Chapman Catt , and Jane Addams , argued that women deserved the same rights as men and that a woman's role to others was secondary to her role to society. Opponents believed that under the natural order of society, women should be subservient to men, and that allowing them to vote could lead to the neglect of their children and families.
On August 18, 1920, the 19th Amendment to the Constitution was ratified, granting women the right to vote. The National American Woman Suffrage Association eventually became the League of Women Voters , a group that is still active today.
Image: House Joint Resolution 1 Proposing the 19th Amendment to the States
Source: National Archives and Records Administration
Click here or on the image to see a larger version and more related information.
Throughout the earlier part of the 20th century, the Jim Crow laws kept southern blacks from voting, even though blacks had won the right to vote in 1869. Thus, on January 23, 1964, the 24th Amendment was ratified, prohibiting states from using poll taxes to keep minorities from voting.
President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Voting Rights Act . This federal law reiterated the rights granted under the 15th Amendment, but went further by protecting blacks and minorities from any other state-supported obstacles, such as literacy tests and complicated ballot boxes, that could keep them from voting.
On July 1, 1971, the 26th Amendment was ratified, lowering the minimum voting age from 21 to 18. Since this was a Constitutional amendment that was ratified by the states, this minimum age applied to all federal, state, and local elections of any kind.
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The U. S. Constitution
